Posted on by Stephanie McGann

The Legend of King Arthur #7: Debates

Debates are an extremely valuable classical exercise. I use them at the conclusion of reading because students can weigh all of the story and the Socratic discussion we enjoyed along the way in order to sharpen their own ideas on a particular question.

Put differently, debates give students a chance to deeply contemplate and form an argument in a personal way. In other words, they learn to develop a thesis. Classically speaking, they are coming to know and embody a Truth.

We divide our debates into three rounds: opening (present story context and thesis), position (make argument), and rebuttal (attack opposing view).

Once the debates are concluded, students are then ready to formally write their ideas in essays, which turn out beautifully. Pretty much across the board, this approach makes for essays that are much stronger and more well-thought-out than before I started using debates as a pre-writing activity.

Plus, the students love it!   

Here is a quick summary of three popular debate questions. They are written as such that either side could win; it all depends on which one makes the better argument.  

Debate Question One: Is King Arthur a righteous king?  

Proposition: Yes! 

This side lists out all of Arthur’s good qualities, moving from the literal (i.e., creating the Code of Chivalry) to the figurative (i.e., striving to be humble).

Then they move on to explain how this is connected to righteousness in his person and in his kingdom. They define righteousness as the desire and will to do what is right in God’s eyes. Based on this definition, they say Arthur always tries to do so.

Finally, they argue that his imperfections do not outweigh the goodness he showed throughout his whole life. Even when he failed, his desire was to do good. He simply did not always know what the right course of action was because some of the issues, like the affair, were so complicated. Plus, Arthur is on his way to Heaven at the end of the book. 

Opposition: No! 

This side focuses on Arthur’s weaknesses, also moving from the literal (i.e., his handling of the affair) to the figurative (i.e., demonstrating pride and anger).

Then they move on to argue that his vices outweigh his virtues, primarily because he died heavily laden with vice. Using the same definition of righteousness above, they argue that the desire to do what is right is not enough. It must be coupled with the will, and Arthur’s will for revenge after the affair blinded him from seeing the world through God’s eyes.

In the rebuttal, they acknowledge Arthur’s good side, but point out that the “grievous wound” in his soul holds him back from going straight to heaven. If he was righteous in life, he would have not have needed Purgatory.  

Debate Question Two: Do Guinevere and Lancelot really love each other?  

Proposition: Yes! 

This side typically begins by painting a picture of Guinevere’s marriage to Arthur as one-sided. Arthur wanted to marry Guinevere, so she had to marry him. Lancelot, on the other hand, was the object of her free will.

In the second round, they address our class definition of love, which is wanting the ultimate good for another. They argue that even though pursuing their love in a secret affair may not have been the best for either of them, they were trying their best given the circumstances. Neither one could very well tell Arthur what was going on without committing treason and breaking his heart.

Furthermore, they both repent of the sin of adultery in the final years of their lives. Guinevere enters a nunnery; Lancelot enters the priesthood. Both remain devoted to each other, but to God first. In this way, they want the ultimate good for one another by praying for their mutual redemption.  

Opposition: No! 

This side also starts off by describing Guinevere’s marriage to Arthur. However, in contrast to the proposition side, they argue that Guinevere did not have to accept his proposal. Arthur never forced his will on anyone, not even an enemy, so he would hardly have done so on the woman he loved.

Furthermore, Guinevere seems happily married for many years, and Arthur appears to be a good, devoted husband. As such, the opposition side concludes that Guinevere’s interest in Lancelot was unjustifiably selfish and the product of lust, not love.

From here, they move onto our definition of love, arguing that Guinevere could not have wanted the ultimate good for Lancelot if she was willing for him to risk his honor as a knight and betray the trust of the Round Table, for such would hurt him both in life and in death.

In their rebuttal, they congratulate Lancelot and Guinevere for wanting redemption, but lambast them for having the affair in the first place, which they knew was wrong. If they truly loved each other, they would have kept their distance.   

Debate Question Three: What brought down the Realm of Logres—the affair or the plots of Mordred?  

Proposition: The Affair! 

This side begins by describing the affair between Lancelot and Guinevere, noting that it was a constant, ever-growing stain on the realm that was bound to bring about destruction.

In the second round, this side typically explains the nature of sin itself. They focus on how venial sins, if left unchecked and unforgiven, grow into mortal sins. Further, they argue that sin hurts not only the sinner and its object, but the world more broadly. Such was the case with Lancelot and Guinevere. Their sin of adultery reverberated throughout the entire kingdom.

Finally, while Mordred may have started the battle that ended Logres, it was the affair that gave him the opportunity.  

Opposition: Mordred! 

This side likes to focus on Mordred’s character in its opening. They point out that as the son of Morgana, he was born with a hatred for Arthur and a desire to bring about his downfall. Thus, his goal was precisely that which occurs.

In the second round, they argue that from the time of his emergence in the story, he was lying in wait for his chance. In fact, it was he who exposed the affair and brought it to Arthur’s attention. Other knights knew what was going on, but Mordred was the only one who took action because he was self-interested in its revelation.

In the rebuttal round, they argue that Mordred would have found a way to accomplish his designs even without the affair. He is pure evil. 

Posted on by Stephanie McGann

The Legend of King Arthur #6: Plot Summary

In a literary sense, plot refers to a series of causally-related events that revolve around a central problem, rise to a climax, and ultimately come to a resolution. Roger Lancelyn Green followed this classical plot structure in his version of the legend of King Arthur, while also ensuring that it maintained its traditional connections to the Bible. Each plot element outlined below has a direct and deliberate connection to salvation history.   

Try following allow by filling in this plot diagram. Or use this complete one as a quick reference. I am also sharing my chapter journal questions that deal with specifics of the plot.

Exposition 

Another word for exposition is setting. The setting for King Arthur, then, is Britain sometime after the fall of the Roman Empire but before the full onset of the Middle Ages. Here we see a match-up between actual history and the legend since Britain at that time really was ruled by various barbarian groups, most famously the Saxons, who lacked a codified rule of law. Moreover, as barbarians, they lacked a Christian worldview and the order it imparts.

Arthur becomes king in this context and thus begins unifying the people of Logres into a Realm of Righteousness and turning it into a type of “Garden of Eden.”  

Inciting Incident  

The inciting incident is the problem that sets the plot in motion. Put differently, it is an event of such great proportions that it fundamentally alters the world of the story and must be played out to its fullest extent. The dolorous stroke is the inciting incident of King Arthur. In a literal sense, the dolorous stroke refers to when Sir Balyn struck King Pelles, maiming him and his kingdom beyond the powers of human healing.

Figuratively, it matches up to the fall of Adam and symbolizes the entry of sin. All of Arthur’s efforts will revolve around trying to ward off the ill effects of the dolorous stroke and restore Logres as a Realm of Righteousness.  

Rising Action  

King Arthur sends his knights on quest after quest to right the wrongs in his kingdom. The quests are wrought with great peril, but the Knights of the Round Table continually emerge victorious because of their great skill at arms and virtuous souls. This dramatic climb eventually comes to a head with the onset of the quest for the Holy Grail.

Literally, the Holy Grail is the cup from which Christ drank at the Last Supper. Figuratively, it represents the source of healing for Logres, or the means by which it can once again be a Realm of Righteousness. Try as they might, none of the knights are virtuous enough to achieve the quest.    

Climax  

Enter Sir Galahad, the “holy knight of Logres.” As explained in the character sketches, he is a Messianic figure. Like Christ, he is the only one who can “drink the cup” of the Holy Grail and heal the sinful effects of the dolorous stroke. His life’s purpose is accomplished at the conclusion of the quest, which is the climax, and so he dies and goes to Heaven.

It should be noted that Galahad objectively defeats sin, but he cannot subjectively defeat it for everyone else. Through him, it is possible for Logres to once again be a Realm of Righteousness, but it is up to each individual to make it that way.  

Falling Action  

Sometimes referred to as the “unravelling,” the falling action is typically a quick descent in the drama that seems almost without control. Here, we focus on the affair between Sir Lancelot and Queen Guinevere. The illicit nature of their relationship permeates the story, but only reveals itself in all its ugliness at this point. The couple gets swept up in their romance, leaves caution to wind, and gets discovered.

Urged on by Sir Mordred, though without the approval of Sir Gawain, King Arthur deals swiftly with the treason. Sir Lancelot manages to escape, but as Arthur’s enemy.  

Resolution  

King Arthur learns too late that Sir Mordred was using the affair as a way to break the trust of the Round Table and elevate himself to the throne. Thus ensues a great battle between Arthur and Mordred, the latter of whom succeeds in turning many of the Knights of the Round Tables.

Arthur receives a grievous wound in the battle, which may or may not have killed him—the mystery makes for a great debate! In any event, his wound is largely symbolic as it represents the presence of vice in his life.

At this point, Morgana reemerges to “heal” Arthur in the mysterious Vale of Avalon, a place akin to purgatory. My students always feel a little let down by this resolution, so some prefer to call it an anti–resolution. After all, it seems like Arthur is dead and the Realm of Righteousness is defeated once and for all. 

Yet, a figurative interpretation gives us a different spin. Arthur lives on not only through the endurance of the story, but also through eternal life. He may not have been perfect, but he was able to subjectively win a place in Purgatory, the gateway to Heaven, thanks to Galahad’s objective victory over sin and death.

Finally and perhaps obviously, the last battle is comparable to the apocalypse. It is the end of the “world” of Logres, but also the final entry point into eternity, the true Realm of Righteousness.   

Posted on by Stephanie McGann

The Legend of King Arthur #5: Character Sketches

I always have my students develop “sketches” of the most important characters in the legend of King Arthur. Before I finish giving instructions on this, some number of them start taking out their coloring pouches to draw pictures.

That can be a lot of fun, but the real point of a character sketch, as I explain, is to write such a good description of a character that the words “draw a picture” in the reader’s mind. We focus not just on what the characters look like physically, but on what they look like spiritually with regard to virtue and vice.

In this way, we marry the literal and figurative aspects of the quests. Of course, they all want to draw pictures, too, so the outcome is truly beautiful and insightful. Depending on what version of the book you read, these descriptions could vary a lot.

King Arthur

As the central character of the story, it is important to give a lot of thought to King Arthur’s sketch. Most of my students favor him, though some do not. Either view is perfectly fine, provided students can back it up.

Generally, we focus on Arthur’s struggle between the virtue of humility and the vice of pride. Our definitions are religious, with humility referring to accepting one’s weaknesses before God and pride referring to believing one can do something without God. All of Arthur’s strength as king and legitimacy to rule flows from his devotion to God.

For example, when he succeeds in pulling the sword from the stone and proving himself the true-born king of Britain at the outset of the story, it is not simply because of his birthright but also because it is an act of humility in service of his step-brother, Kay. Arthur’s calling as ruler of the Realm of Logres is to give glory to God, not to himself.

Moreover, he designs the code of chivalry as a means for his knights to balance their own struggle between pride and humility. Put differently, it teaches his knights that strength, whether it be in arms or spirit, is only found in service to God and others.

Finally, Arthur’s “undoing” in the aftermath of Queen Guinevere’s affair with Sir Lancelot also reflects this struggle. A key question for students is whether Arthur honored God or himself in his handling of the affair.

Merlin

Merlin is one of the most magical characters in the legend. He sees and knows everything, or near everything, about King Arthur and the Realm of Logres. He uses this knowledge along with his sorcery to impart wisdom on Arthur, but he never tells him what to do.

Merlin’s relationship with Arthur is much like that of a parent to a child. He tries his best to prepare Arthur for the trials of his kingship, but he knows that he cannot rule for him. In fact, Merlin goes to his “deep sleep” very early on in the story and leaves Arthur to rule according to his own judgment.

The virtue and vice paradigm does not really work for Merlin since he has an other-worldly, super-human quality about himself. Instead, it is helpful to think of him as a type of prophet set apart from the world.

Guinevere

The context of Lady Guinevere’s marriage to King Arthur is fairly ambiguous in Green’s version. She seems to be pretty young, and she does not seem to have much of a choice in the matter. Nevertheless, she also seems happily married to him, at least until Sir Lancelot joins the Knights of the Round Table.

At that point, her head is turned and the seeds of her infidelity are sown. She makes open advances toward Lancelot, who both encourages and resists them in turn. Some of my students see her as a “victim” in a forced marriage, but most see her as a terrible cheat and refuse to justify her actions.

Guinevere’s struggle is between the virtue of purity, which is living in a state of grace, and the vice of impurity, which is falling from grace. We debate Guinevere’s affair and the “pureness” of her love for Lancelot extensively.

Gawain

Sir Gawain is King Arthur’s nephew and most loyal knight. He is immensely devoted to Arthur, offering him his very life over and over again.

He initially struggles with chivalry, and therefore makes his life’s mission an attempt to prove himself worthy of the Round Table. He is most well-known for his quest with the Green Knight, which revolves around the virtue of valor, or courage with honor. He also marries an Old Hag in order to honor his word, which turns out pretty nicely for him in the end!

His greatest challenge comes during the Guinevere-Lancelot affair. He struggles with how to obey his king while also obeying his conscience. While Gawain’s character touches on many virtues, he is most focused on honor, which means being true to God.

My students grow to love Gawain, no doubt because he faces and overcomes so many grave challenges. But when he messes up, they are all the more disappointed in him.

Lancelot

In contrast to Sir Gawain who works very hard for his virtue, Sir Lancelot seems to live a charmed life. He is the “best knight” of the Round Table, complete with superior battle skills, good looks, and a spotless character—that is, until he meets Queen Guinevere.

From that moment on, Lancelot is tormented by impure thoughts. He thus begins leading a double-life. Outwardly, he appears as upright as ever. But inwardly, he falls further and further from grace. It proves impossible, even for the mighty Lancelot, to lead a life of such contradiction, and he eventually fully succumbs to the vice of impurity and has an affair with Guinevere.

My students are always torn between feelings of deep disgust and pity. His character, noble in so many ways, is truly tragic.

Galahad

Lancelot bequeathed the good side of his character to his son, Sir Galahad, who was born out of wedlock when the Lady Elaine bewitched Lancelot into believing she was Guinevere. Despite this questionable action by Elaine, she claims holy lineage as a descendant of Joseph of Arimathea, which no doubt predisposes Galahad for goodness.

In fact, Galahad is the only knight who proves stronger in might and virtue than Lancelot. Moreover, he is a messianic character fated to achieve the quest of the Holy Grail, which will be discussed in the next post.

My students always admire Galahad, but his perfection makes him a little harder to relate to on a human level.

Morgana 

Morgana is King Arthur’s older half-sister and nemesis. Green’s version of the legend does not explain Morgana ‘s hatred, but there is certainly plenty of “history” we can read into.

Most significantly, Arthur’s father, Uther Pendragon, murdered Morgana’s father and then married her mother. That probably started things off on the wrong foot! In any event, Morgana was sent away to a nunnery as a young girl, but she somehow got secretly mixed up in the black arts. She hence becomes a powerful sorceress intent on bringing about the downfall of Arthur.

Morgana nevertheless disappears early on in the book only to reappear in the final chapter as a virtuous aid to Arthur. The reasons for her conversion are even more ambiguous than the reasons for her prior evil ways.

Incidentally, she’s the lead character in my book, which tries to fill in the details…

Mordred

Son of Morgana and King Lot, Mordred is pure evil. He takes after his mother and desires to bring about the downfall of Arthur so he can rule the Realm of Logres.

He only appears in the final chapters of the book when he forces the affair between Lancelot and Guinevere into the open and pressures King Arthur to sentence them to death. His intentions are totally insincere, however, because he seeks vengeance, not justice. He wants to elevate himself, not serve his king. This becomes apparent, but not until the kingdom has erupted into full-blown civil war between his side and Arthur’s.

In Green’s version, Mordred is entirely unsympathetic and without redemption. Other versions paint his story and lineage differently. For example, in one, Mordred is the son of Morgana and Arthur, which can be confusing and troubling for students!

Posted on by Stephanie McGann

The Legend of King Arthur #4: Archetypes

An archetype is a literary term that refers to a “first type” or “fundamental type” of character or other story element. Part of what makes the legend of King Arthur so important is that it created many archetypes that permeate our society today, especially in the superhero genre.   

Knight in Shining Armor 

My students always have a good idea of what a knight in shining armor is well before we begin reading King Arthur. They know it refers to a hero, typically male, who swoops in to save someone in danger, even at great peril to himself.

When we go a little deeper, they quickly recognize the symbolism of his “shining armor.” It is not simply that the knight is supposed to be glamorously good-looking (which doesn’t hurt), but also that he is a model of virtue. His goodness shines forth and shields him from badness.

I love questioning my students, especially the girls, about whether they believe a knight in shining armor really exists. Even at their young age, they mostly say “no” with a sigh. But once they start learning about the actual knights from the legend, wrought with all their imperfections and yet always seeking virtue, they begin to see the archetype as the only ambition for a man!  

Damsel in Distress 

The definition of a damsel in distress is almost too obvious at first. It refers to a person, typically a female, who is utterly incapable of saving herself from disaster and must therefore rely on the chivalrous rescue of a knight in shining armor. Que the romance music, and the two end up happily ever after.

This is one of the more difficult archetypes for our modern sensibilities. At first glimpse, it positions women as being weaker than and therefore dependent on men, which is not a popular idea these days.

However, that is not exactly a correct interpretation of the medieval gender roles the archetype reflects. Women in the Middle Ages were very much likened to the Virgin Mary. Just as all men should revere Mary, so too should they serve a worthy reflection of her on earth. The damsel in distress, then, was placed on a pedestal that made her greater than the man, even if weaker in physical abilities.

In the medieval worldview, men and women were not meant to be equal in their sameness but in their complementarity.  

Hero’s Dilemma 

Much of the dramatic conflict in the legend of King Arthur revolves around the hero’s dilemma, which on a basic level, describes when a knight meets two people in need of rescue but cannot save both. Typically, one person is someone he loves, and the other is a stranger. He must, therefore, choose between serving his own desires or suppressing them.

The hero’s dilemma also repeatedly plays out in a figurative sense through the struggle between virtue (serving God) and vice (serving self).

The most extreme hero’s dilemma revolves around Arthur. When he learns of the love affair between Queen Guinevere and Sir Lancelot, he must choose between sentencing her to death as prescribed by the laws he created and governs, or letting her go free. (Lancelot escapes arrest and so is not sentenced.) In other words, he wrestles with saving his “family” or his “kingdom.” This is an impossible choice because Arthur loves them both!

Dilemmas such as these make for thoroughly enjoyable and insightful classroom debates.  

Posted on by Stephanie McGann

The Legend of King Arthur #3: Quest Motif

A motif is simply a fancy word for theme. I like using it with my students because of its special application to literature and the arts.  

One of the most important motifs in King Arthur is the “knightly quest,” which is two-fold. To begin with, there is a literal quest such as saving a damsel in distress. Alongside this, the knight must also undertake a figurative quest, which I refer to as a “quest for virtue.” Every knight, whether it be Sir Gawain, Sir Lancelot, or King Arthur himself, is constantly seeking virtue in his life and struggling to overcome vice in the process.  

Before we go any further, it is helpful to define a few terms. The simplest definition of virtue is “a good habit.” While I like this definition, it still needs more. After all, not every good habit can automatically be called a virtue. For example, of course it is “good” to clear your plate from the dinner table, but we probably would not call that a virtue. We would simply call it a good habit.  

Virtues, then, need to be placed within their natural Christian context. They are habits of the soul that manifest in our actions. Moreover, they are not something we can simply obtain and move on from. We must do them over and over again so that we embody them.  

Faith, hope, and charity, the three theological virtues, figure prominently on the quests, but they might sound a little more Arthurian if we unpack the terms slightly.

Faith can be seen in the knights’ fealty, loyalty, and obedience to God, king, and country.

Likewise, hope is best reflected in the virtue of trust around which the Round Table and the Code of Chivalry are built. Knights forge a trust in one another and further trust that the goodness of their social compact will bear fruit for the realm as a whole.

Finally, charity, more properly defined here as sacrificial love, permeates everything and is most obviously at the heart of chivalry itself, which means helping another in need no matter the cost. A major virtue that goes hand-in-hand with this is humility, as it is a prerequisite of all service.    

For every virtue, there is an equal and opposite vice: humility vs. pride; fealty vs. treason; chivalry vs. cravenness; and so on.  

To summarize Arthurian quests, a knight must save a damsel or perform some such heroic act, while also trying to overcome a vice, in order to embody a particular virtue. And, even once the quest is complete, there is no guarantee that he will perpetually embody that virtue unless he keeps working at it. Moreover, each knight, including King Arthur, has particular vices he struggles with, making certain virtues his objective. 

The literal aspect of each knightly quest is fairly easy for students to objectively measure; either he saves the damsel or not. But the figurative part is very difficult and makes for wonderful debates, which we will get to later. It also makes the knights, fictitious and fantastic though they are, profoundly human.  

On a final note, quests were a major motif in medieval literature as a whole, making it an important study for students of the Middle Ages in general. The medieval quest, sometimes characterized as a pilgrimage, was a metaphor for man’s earthly journey to Heaven. At the end of the day, that was what it was all about in the medieval mindset (and in a classical classroom)!

Posted on by Stephanie McGann

The Legend of King Arthur #2: Background

Mention of King Arthur first appeared in print around the year 1130 AD as part of Geoffrey of Monmouth’s History of the Kings of Britain. The text describes Arthur’s birth and marriage to Lady Guinevere, then called Ganhumara. Although this text was originally taken as historical, it no longer enjoys that status. Instead, it has found its proper place in the literary world and is considered “pseudo-historical,” which simply means “pretend history.”  

In fact, that’s what makes King Arthur a legend. It is quite possible that King Arthur has some factual basis, but his life has grown far beyond any semblance of actual history.  

For example, around the mid-twelfth century, tales of the British monarch moved south to Normandy where a poet named Robert Wace expanded on King Arthur’s story. Most significantly, he added the Round Table and Excalibur, two of the most famous, not to mention magical and mysterious, icons of the legend. 

By the end of the century, King Arthur had been further transformed into a powerful warrior by Chretien de Troyes. It is through his narration that we first meet Camelot, Lancelot, and the Holy Grail.  

In the mid-fifteenth century, Sir Thomas Malory drew from these many versions and the oral tradition that no doubt still persisted and wrote The Whole Book of King Arthur and His Knights of the Round Table. In 1485, his publisher changed the title to The Death of Arthur and released it as 21 books. Clearly, much had been imagined since 1130 to have a story of such substantial length.  

And that was not the end of it! We have countless additional versions and endless spin-offs (including my own).  

The bottom line is: King Arthur has captured the imagination and the heart of generation after generation of people all around the world for centuries. Though his story is quintessentially “medieval” with its knights in shining armor and courtly romances, it is forever modern because of its timeless insights into human nature, social structures, and the like.   

Posted on by Stephanie McGann

The Legend of King Arthur #1

Every year without fail, my students dive into Roger Lancelyn Green’s King Arthur and His Knights of the Round Table. By the time we finish studying the book, I start noticing other versions and spin-offs stacked on their desks. They don’t want the story to end, and neither do I.  

Perhaps that’s the charm of the legend. It takes hold of our imagination and won’t let go. We keep coming back to the same questions: Could a Realm of Righteousness really exist? What if King Arthur was real? Is chivalry dead?  

In tribute to the enthusiasm of my students, I have put together a series that describes my classical approach to teaching the legend of King Arthur. I hope it may prove useful to students, parents, teachers, and the fandom in general, who want to learn about this enduring legend.    

The series is divided into the following segments: 

I. Background

II. Quest Motif

III. Archetypes

IV. Character Sketches

V. Plot Summary 

VI. Debates 

I recommend you read each segment in order as I post them in the coming weeks to get the fullest understanding of my classical approach, and don’t hesitate to contact me with questions!