Posted on by Stephanie McGann

Literacy, Wisdom, and Virtue #1

Great Books are a pillar of classical education, most obviously because they impart wisdom in some form or another. Some cause us to look out at the world and think deeply about what we see. Others compel us to look back at ourselves and reflect on who we are.

But there is another, equally important yet sometimes neglected reason why Great Books should be read in schools. They are powerful tools for teaching students to read well.

That’s right. Great Books, challenging as they can be, should be read by children of all ages, even young readers, to help them read better. No book is too hard or too advanced—if a teacher or parent is poised to guide a child through it.

It is the rare child who could pick up a Great Book by the likes of Shakespeare and unpack its meaning all on its own. For that matter, I can’t imagine an adult who could do that! The language is so difficult and the ideas so complex that a first read often feels mind-numbing and senseless.

For that reason, many educators shy away from the Great Books.

“Skills first!” they argue. “Students need to be good readers before they can dive into something like Shakespeare.”

Classical educators, however, respectfully disagree. The Great Books can be used to teach skills like reading fluency and comprehension while also opening up a child’s world to a wealth of wisdom. In this way, the reading experience is productive and meaningful. Children fall in love with reading as they grow in wisdom and virtue.

So what is virtue in this context?

If you read my series on King Arthur and His Knights of the Round Table, you know that virtue is a major theme of my teaching. Here, I use the term as somewhat of a synonym for skill, and that’s not just because it’s a fancier word. Rather, I prefer virtue because it more fully captures the idea of a trained habit, whereas skill tends to imply something that can be mastered and moved on from.

Fluent reading, for example, is acquired from a steadfast devotion to practice, just as comprehension is achieved to an ever greater extent over time through continued effort. Both are constantly evolving in a reader. Even a highly literate adult reader might struggle with Shakespeare during a first read but will certainly understand more and more as he works through it. Thus, his virtues improve through the act of reading itself.

In this series, I am going to present a variety of strategies I use to teach the virtues of reading. Some are “tried-and-true,” while others are “research-based.” All are distinctly classical in that they are paired with the Great Books and all their wisdom.

I have grouped the strategies according to the following categories: reading aloud, silent reading, and focused practice.

Posted on by Stephanie McGann

The Lady of Shalott #4: Copia Exercise

When I first assigned copia as part of my class’s study of Alfred Lord Tennyson’s poem, “The Lady of Shallot,” I only meant for them to work on language expression as a relatively quick warm-up to begin Literature class. That is, I wanted them to rewrite Tennyson’s poem in their own words while staying True to his meaning. As expected, most students wrote their copias in paragraph format.

But a few students took it upon themselves to add the extra challenge of writing in verse. I was amazed as they replicated Tennyson’s language patterns, including his rhyme scheme and meter!

Next thing I knew, everyone was trying to do the same thing with their copias. Our “little” writing warm-up had turned into something gigantic. We ended up using entire class periods to annotate and rewrite single stanzas. It looked something like this:

10 minutes discussing the stanza and marking up Tennyson’s original ideas. We would come up with synonyms, unpack symbolism, and unveil as much hidden meaning as we could.

10 minutes to rewrite the stanza as a single sentence. Our goal was to not only illustrate comprehension of Tennyson’s meaning, but to represent it in a beautiful, artistic way.

15 minutes to rewrite the stanza in poetic form. Once again, our goal was to stay true to Tennyson’s original meaning, but we also wanted to capture his rhyme scheme and meter.

10 minutes for students to share their copias, which most were eager to do. They would applaud one another’s readings with “ooohs” and “aaaahs” and “wows,” secretly hoping theirs would outshine the rest. It was a little like an evening at a poetry club.

Since that first group of students, I have played around with how to structure class periods, but I have stuck with the basic method of instruction. From year-to-year, the end products are consistently beautiful.

The following examples are based on Part III, Stanza I of the poem, which introduces Sir Lancelot. Here are Tennyson’s original words.

A bow-shot from her bower-eaves,
He rode between the barley-sheaves,
The sun came dazzling thro’ the leaves,
And flamed upon the brazen greaves
Of bold Sir Lancelot.
A red-cross knight for ever kneel’d
To a lady in his shield,
That sparkled on the yellow field,
Beside remote Shalott.

Once we analyzed the stanza, students were ready to rewrite it as a single sentence.

Here are three short student copias.

EXAMPLE ONE

Sir Lancelot, graced with honor and beauty, flashed across her mirror.

EXAMPLE TWO

She saw a man unlike any other, more handsome and noble, and she longed to reach out to him.

EXAMPLE THREE

The mighty Sir Lancelot emblazed his image on her heart.

Here are three long student copias.

EXAMPLE ONE

In the mirror sparkling clear,
Between the barley far and near,
Between the many emerald tears,
Came he whose very name is feared,
The knight Sir Lancelot.
His shield shone with an image clear,
Of a red-crossed knight with gleaming spear,
Who knelt before his lady dear,
As if for she he fought.

EXAMPLE TWO

From further than the longest night,
Came man on horseback riding light,
A young, handsome, and noble knight,
Not strong in virtue but strong in fight,
The bold Sir Lancelot.
A red-cross knight forever sworn
To protecting all by word and sword,
There she stood and could not ignore,
The bold Sir Lancelot.

EXAMPLE THREE

When he rides it gives a fright,
One of Arthur’s near-perfect knights,
They say he’s never lost a fight,
Could cut you down with a single strike,
The brave Sir Lancelot.
She reflects upon his armor’s sheen,
She looks at how his broad sword gleams,
She knows not that her face does beam,
The Lady of Shalott.

Not surprisingly, each copia example reflects a considerable investment of time and energy by the student. Though the writing came easier for some than others, all had to carefully work through the process.

What may be surprising is that each of the students experienced tremendous joy and satisfaction in the midst of toiling through the writing. Of course they were happy when they were done, but so too were they excited as they worked. And that makes for beautiful poetry.

Posted on by Stephanie McGann

The Lady of Shalott #3: Memory Work

No matter how well versed my students are in memory work, long narrative poems tend to be a source of anxiety—but only at first. Such is the case with Alfred Lord Tennyson’s poem, “The Lady of Shallot” At nineteen stanzas long with nine verses each, it is little wonder my students look downcast when I first tell them we will be memorizing the whole thing.

“That’s a sha-lot of words,” a student once quipped.

Nevertheless, within the first week or so, a sense of pride and accomplishment takes over. Students realize that long memory work is no different than short memory work, provided it is done in a well-paced, strategic manner. Then by the end, they shrug off the assignment like it was no big deal. Of course, that’s not really the case. The work is hard and even relentless, but it stops feeling that way once they understand how to manage it.

But why take on such a big project in the first place? In a world where information is readily available with the swipe of a finger or the tap of a keyboard, why should students invest time in committing anything, let alone a poem about a fictional character, to memory anyways?

As classical educators have long held, the reasons are many!

To begin with, memorizing poetry provides students with a ready store of language patterns to draw from. I have seen this firsthand over and over again. After committing a poem to memory, student writing will showcase many of the new patterns, not to mention a huge stockpile of new vocabulary words.

Similarly, memory work deepens student understanding of the material and allows them to engage it in a more meaningful way than simply reading it and discussing it. By spending so much time imprinting the words into their minds, they come to embody the ideas behind them.

Philosophically speaking, the poems become a type of music for their souls that will stay with them throughout their lives.

“All that is well and good,” one might say, “but give me a more scientific justification!”

Well, here is one. Memory work strengthens the brain and makes it more agile for all sorts of other work. Many of us know this through our own experience. Just think of all the phone numbers your mother stored in her memory before the age of cellphones on top of the endless doctor’s appointments and soccer practices and birthdays and so forth. Compared to a lot of us today, she would be considered a savant. Yet, all she was really doing was making her brain work. The more it worked at memorizing information, the better it got at it.

Research backs this up as well. Take a look at Benedict Carey’s book, How We Learn: The Surprising Truth about When, Where, and Why It Happens. He draws together a vast array of research that shows how the brain gets stronger as it commits more things to memory. What’s more, the possibilities of what and how much one can memorize are seemingly endless.

That brings us to the question of how students should memorize “The Lady of Shalott.” I recommend using a variety of strategies, all of which should be led by the teacher and reinforced at home.

A Little at a Time

The first and most fundamental is chunking the poem into smaller sections. That makes it much more manageable for students because they can work on memorizing a little at a time. “The Lady of Shalott” has four parts, with four stanzas in the first, four in the second, five in the third, and six in the fourth.  As such, I have the class memorize one part at a time and end up with four quizzes throughout the duration of our study. I use the strategies below for each part.

Recite. Recite. Recite.

For several days, we simply recite an entire part of the poem together as a class. They may have a copy out to read along or just listen and join in by ear. Either way, students gain an initial understanding of how the poem sounds and grow accustomed to its rhythm and melody.

Sometimes we recite as a single voice. Other times, I say a line and they repeat it. Still other times, I say the beginning of a line, and they finish it. I like using a combination of these approaches because it forces students to attend more closely to what they are saying. As we get more comfortable, I begin calling on students to lead the class through similar practice.

This type of repeated recitation is absolutely essential in memory work. As such, I encourage students to do similar work at home. Some, however, do not end up needing to do any because the classroom practice is enough.

Memory Moves

The next step is to ask students to come up with motions to go along with the poem. It might seem a little silly at first, especially for older students, but it is a dynamic way for them to visually imagine the story behind the poem and cue their memory in the process. Plus, it tends to be a lot of fun!

To that end, we line up around the classroom, and I assign a couple verses each to pairs of students, being sure to match the order of the verses with their line order. They come up with some kind of “move,” like spreading their arms wide as if they were separating water when they say, “On either side of the river lie.”

After the first pair teaches its move to the rest of the class, the second group goes. Then, we put it all together—words and moves—from the beginning. We repeat this process until we get through the whole poem.

By the end, students have a strong association between the moves and the words, which is mutually reinforcing. I always smile to myself when I see them quietly wriggling their bodies in recollection when it comes time for a quiz.

Writing Makes Perfect

The final step is helping students learn to write it out in proper poetic format, meaning they separate the verses and stanzas appropriately. For this, I have students number each verse in the stanza 1-9 and so forth. I give them the first word or two on the board, and they fill in whatever else they can remember.

This is always harder than the oral recitation, largely because it is completed independently. Students who think they know the whole thing soon realize they don’t. As such, it’s an important “check-point.” We write out the poem many times, and students remember more and more with each practice.

When quiz time rolls around, most students ace it, and of them do well.

Posted on by Stephanie McGann

The Lady of Shalott #2: Literary Analysis

“The Lady of Shallot” by Alfred Lord Tennyson is a narrative poem, which simply means it’s a poem that tells a story. It is made up of verses, which are single lines, and stanzas, which are groupings of lines.

Tennyson divided the entire poem into four parts that transition through the plot, beginning with the exposition, moving onto the inciting incident, up through the climax, and back down to its resolution.

Tennyson draws from Arthurian legend but builds on it at the same time. Indeed, his leading lady is unique to the poem. She is a symbolic representation of an artist, perhaps even Tennyson himself.

Literal Interpretation

PART I: EXPOSITION – THE BACKGROUND

Here Tennyson presents Camelot as the setting for his poem. In keeping with the traditions of Arthurian legend, it is an idyllic kingdom with a beautiful natural landscape divided in half by a flowing river. The mysterious Island of Shalott and its tall grey tower stand strong against the current, presenting an image that is at once part of, yet separate from everything else. It is believed that a fair damsel is imprisoned in the tower, but none have visited it to be sure. Only fieldworkers can attest to her existence because they have heard her singing in the early mornings.

PART II: INCITING INCIDENT – THE PROBLEM

In this section, Tennyson takes us inside the tower and reveals the Lady of Shalott. He tells us she is cursed to live there and weave a never-ending tapestry of everything going on in the world outside. As such, she cannot participate in what she sees. To make matters worse, she does not even get to look at the world directly through the window. Instead, she must look at it through a mirror. The images then, beautiful as they may be, are really no more than shadows. She delights in them nonetheless, only occasionally feeling left out when she watches happy couples in love.

PART III: CLIMAX – THE BREAKING POINT

The difficulty of being set apart from the world reaches a breaking point when the Lady of Shalott sees an image of the handsome Sir Lancelot riding across her mirror. She is so captivated by him that she notices every last detail of his person. In fact, Tennyson uses four whole stanzas to describe his appearance. In the fifth and final stanza of this section, the Lady of Shalott cannot take it anymore. She has to see him directly—not as a reflection or a shadow, but as a real-life person. No sooner does she turn away from the mirror and look at him through the window, then her tapestry disappears, and she is doomed to death. “The curse is come upon me,” she cries.

PART IV: RESOLUTION – THE “FIX” (OR LACK THEREOF)

Knowing her end is imminent, the Lady of Shalott descends the tower and finds a boat to serve as her funeral barge. She lies down, placing a name plate upon her chest, and floats down the river toward Camelot. All of nature is wrought with grief as she slowly dies. A storm rises up; the trees turn pale; and the banks complain with its crashing waves. All the while, the Lady of Shalott sings her last song, marked with sadness and grief. When her boat finally runs ashore, the people discover her dead body and learn her identity. Sir Lancelot, ever the heart-breaker, remarks how lovely she is and asks God to bestow a blessing upon her.

Figurative Interpretation

As if its literal meaning is not fascinating enough on its own, Tennyson has written much symbolism into his poem. He tells us (between the lines) that the Lady of Shalott symbolizes the artist.

Both are tasked with the special job of representing Goodness, Beauty, and Truth in the world. The Lady of Shalott does so through her tapestry, while other artists might do so through a variety of mediums like drawing, writing, and singing. Obviously, some artists are better than others, and the best ones are able to look at the world with objectivity. Put differently, the better an artist is able to see things through the eyes of God—our first artist and ultimate judge—the better he is able to represent it in his work.

Herein lies a central point. Goodness, Beauty, and Truth are not relative terms or values, nor are they subjective. Likewise, they do not change with the times like fashion trends. They are objective virtues, meant to be obtained in absolute perfection.

The Lady of Shalott knows this. Thus, to be a good artist and maintain her objectivity, she must be set apart from everyone and everything. The moment she engages the world directly by looking out the window, she forms her own subjective view, which is entirely focused on Sir Lancelot. She no longer notices the willows, or the aspens, or the little breezes. Nor does she see Sir Lancelot in his fullness, meaning what his soul looks like on the inside. Instead, she fixates on his handsome good looks, while failing to unmask his vices.

Though we may feel happy for her that she is free from the tower, she has become imprisoned anew with her own subjectivity. Tennyson tells us that as she floats down the river, “Her eyes were darkened wholly.” Thus, she loses her vision, both literally and figuratively, and dies.

One must wonder if Tennyson felt a little like the Lady of Shalott. Perhaps we all do at times. Indeed, my students often find similarities with their own lives. They note how music and movies and other realities of contemporary society can weaken their ability to see the difference between right and wrong, virtue and vice. The more they are exposed to certain things, the less they are able to judge them fairly.

Each of us, artists in our ways, continually struggle to reconcile the pressures of the world and the demands of our unique callings. Unlike the Lady of Shalott, however, we are not doomed, for we have the blessing of free will to navigate our way.

Posted on by Stephanie McGann

The Lady of Shalott #1

I first read “The Lady of Shallot” by Alfred Lord Tennyson when I was a high school sophomore. My teacher assigned it as reading homework one evening, and then we discussed it in class together the next day. My interest piqued as she explained the story and broke down its symbolism. There was so much more going on with the enchanted damsel trapped in the tower than what I had been able to grasp on my own. All the while, her image kept staring out at me from the textbook, beckoning me to take a closer look.

“The Lady of Shalott” by John Waterhouse (1888)

It was a two-day study, but it stayed with me over the years. Maybe it was the melodious refrain of the poem that echoed in my mind. Maybe it was the tragic idea of one dying upon entering into the world. Maybe it was the look of anguish in the painting. Whatever it was, I reflected back on “The Lady of Shalott” from time to time before I became a teacher myself and selected it as a poetic companion to my class’s study of Roger Lancelyn Green’s King Arthur and His Knights of the Round Table.

Drawing from the traditions of classical education, I spend significantly more time working on the poem with my students than I did back in high school. We discuss it, memorize it, and rewrite it over the course of two months. In the end, we have an incredible portfolio of assignments, not to mention an unforgettable encounter with a timeless poem.

Over the next few weeks, I will present a series that explains my classical approach to teaching “The Lady of Shalott.” It is broken down into the following segments.

I. Literary Analysis

II. Memory Work

III. Copia Work

I hope it may prove useful to students, parents, educators, and poetry lovers in general.

Posted on by Stephanie McGann

The Art of Writing #2: Language Patterns

A language pattern refers to the way in which the core parts of a sentence are put together. The most basic pattern includes a subject noun and a verb. One of the more complicated includes a subject noun, verb-transitive, direct object, and object noun complement. I know, that’s a lot, but it’s still not all! 

There is a seemingly endless number of potential modifiers in each sentence, including articles, adjectives, adverbs, and prepositional phrases. Plus, with each language pattern, there are a variety of sentence forms, like the simple sentence, compound sentence, complex sentence, and the much dreaded compound-complex sentence.  

But before we get too overwhelmed, let’s take a look at how copia can simplify all of this. As you read in my previous post, copia is the art of expressing the Truth of language in a new way. The Truth that we’re after in this exercise revolves around language patterns.  

To keep things simple, I am going to use a pattern one sentence, which includes a subject noun and a verb as the core parts. You could write your own sentence models, but I find it easier, more engaging, and more instructive to use classic examples, like this one.  

(Incidentally, nursery rhymes are a great choice because they stick in our memory so well. In that way, they help students layer conceptual memory on top of audio memory.) 

Borrowing from the Shurley English method of grammar instruction, I then have my students classify the model. That means they put labels for each word job above the sentence. Notice that word jobs are different than word parts. For example, Humpty Dumpty is the name of a person (or egg, if you rather), so it’s a noun. But, it’s a noun used in the subject, so its job is subject noun.  

The next step is to diagram. This gives a powerful visual for students to see the relationship between the words in the sentence. If diagramming seems too intimidating, take a look at Mary Daly’s Elementary Diagramming Textbook. It provides conversational instructions, wonderful sentence models, and beautifully drawn diagrams.  

Once the model sentence is classified and diagrammed, I then instruct students to write their own copia sentence using the exact same pattern. They can change the words and even the entire idea of the sentence, but the word jobs and word order must be the same. To test that their sentence matches, students classify and diagram it. If done correctly, the labels and lines will match up exactly. It’s a good idea to have students write, classify, and diagram multiple copia sentences. 

Here are a few clever student copias that capture both the language pattern and the idea behind the rhyme, showcasing the downfall of a ruler. 

As the school year progresses, we practice copia with more and more complicated patterns, eventually trying to replicate sentences written by great authors like Shakespeare. If done in a well-ordered progression, the sentence patterns will never feel too intimidating for students. And, they will have a rich understanding of language because they will have learned to write like the greats.   

Posted on by Stephanie McGann

The Art of Writing #1: Introduction to Copia

Writing instruction for middle school students is one of the more difficult challenges for teachers. Not only do they need to ensure students master all sorts of grammatical and spelling rules, but they also need to help students come up with something meaningful to say.  

Many of the writing “programs” out there have devised all sorts of complex methods that walk students through multiple phases of pre-writing, writing, and revision. The names for these phases can vary a lot, but the point is more or less the same. The more time you spend thinking about what you are going to write and then writing and rewriting it, the better the end result. I certainly agree with this.  

Nonetheless, those same programs are often overly tedious and devoid of meaningful content for students to contemplate and develop. Instead, they set up drawn out writing assignments about some fairly absurd topics like favorite foods or hobbies. Not that there is anything wrong with those ideas, but they feel a little empty and almost insulting to students. Like a seventh grader doesn’t have more interesting ideas to offer! 

Even in the world of classical education, there are very few writing programs out there, which by the way, are complete with their own fancy names for the writing phases. Most classical educators are appropriately skeptical of anything prepackaged as they tend to suck the life out an otherwise worthy intellectual endeavor. Instead, classical educators hold fast to a collection of good habits and a handful of tried and true exercises.  

One that I have enjoyed using with great success is copia, which comes from the Latin word for ‘abundance.’ As suggested by its etymology, copia as a writing exercise refers to a deliberate practice of finding the many ways in which one might say something. I like to define it as the art of expressing the Truth of language in a new way.

Desiderius Erasmus developed this exercises in the early 16th century, famously coming up with 150 ways to rewrite the sentence, “Your letter pleased me greatly.” For an example of what this looks like, check out this link. His point is fairly obvious. Even the most basic ideas can be said in a multitude of ways. It is up the writer, then, to choose which way is the best.   

This is an invaluable lesson for the student, not to mention the seasoned writer. I spend a class period early on in the school year presenting the Erasmus challenge. Try as they might, my students fall way short of his 150 examples, but they begin to see how words can be transformed without changing the meaning.  

From there, I introduce the two main ways that I have adapted the exercise in the classroom. The first is using copia to teach language patterns. The second is using copia to teach artistic expression. I will present both styles in subsequent posts. 

Posted on by Stephanie McGann

The Legend of King Arthur #7: Debates

Debates are an extremely valuable classical exercise. I use them at the conclusion of reading because students can weigh all of the story and the Socratic discussion we enjoyed along the way in order to sharpen their own ideas on a particular question.

Put differently, debates give students a chance to deeply contemplate and form an argument in a personal way. In other words, they learn to develop a thesis. Classically speaking, they are coming to know and embody a Truth.

We divide our debates into three rounds: opening (present story context and thesis), position (make argument), and rebuttal (attack opposing view).

Once the debates are concluded, students are then ready to formally write their ideas in essays, which turn out beautifully. Pretty much across the board, this approach makes for essays that are much stronger and more well-thought-out than before I started using debates as a pre-writing activity.

Plus, the students love it!   

Here is a quick summary of three popular debate questions. They are written as such that either side could win; it all depends on which one makes the better argument.  

Debate Question One: Is King Arthur a righteous king?  

Proposition: Yes! 

This side lists out all of Arthur’s good qualities, moving from the literal (i.e., creating the Code of Chivalry) to the figurative (i.e., striving to be humble).

Then they move on to explain how this is connected to righteousness in his person and in his kingdom. They define righteousness as the desire and will to do what is right in God’s eyes. Based on this definition, they say Arthur always tries to do so.

Finally, they argue that his imperfections do not outweigh the goodness he showed throughout his whole life. Even when he failed, his desire was to do good. He simply did not always know what the right course of action was because some of the issues, like the affair, were so complicated. Plus, Arthur is on his way to Heaven at the end of the book. 

Opposition: No! 

This side focuses on Arthur’s weaknesses, also moving from the literal (i.e., his handling of the affair) to the figurative (i.e., demonstrating pride and anger).

Then they move on to argue that his vices outweigh his virtues, primarily because he died heavily laden with vice. Using the same definition of righteousness above, they argue that the desire to do what is right is not enough. It must be coupled with the will, and Arthur’s will for revenge after the affair blinded him from seeing the world through God’s eyes.

In the rebuttal, they acknowledge Arthur’s good side, but point out that the “grievous wound” in his soul holds him back from going straight to heaven. If he was righteous in life, he would have not have needed Purgatory.  

Debate Question Two: Do Guinevere and Lancelot really love each other?  

Proposition: Yes! 

This side typically begins by painting a picture of Guinevere’s marriage to Arthur as one-sided. Arthur wanted to marry Guinevere, so she had to marry him. Lancelot, on the other hand, was the object of her free will.

In the second round, they address our class definition of love, which is wanting the ultimate good for another. They argue that even though pursuing their love in a secret affair may not have been the best for either of them, they were trying their best given the circumstances. Neither one could very well tell Arthur what was going on without committing treason and breaking his heart.

Furthermore, they both repent of the sin of adultery in the final years of their lives. Guinevere enters a nunnery; Lancelot enters the priesthood. Both remain devoted to each other, but to God first. In this way, they want the ultimate good for one another by praying for their mutual redemption.  

Opposition: No! 

This side also starts off by describing Guinevere’s marriage to Arthur. However, in contrast to the proposition side, they argue that Guinevere did not have to accept his proposal. Arthur never forced his will on anyone, not even an enemy, so he would hardly have done so on the woman he loved.

Furthermore, Guinevere seems happily married for many years, and Arthur appears to be a good, devoted husband. As such, the opposition side concludes that Guinevere’s interest in Lancelot was unjustifiably selfish and the product of lust, not love.

From here, they move onto our definition of love, arguing that Guinevere could not have wanted the ultimate good for Lancelot if she was willing for him to risk his honor as a knight and betray the trust of the Round Table, for such would hurt him both in life and in death.

In their rebuttal, they congratulate Lancelot and Guinevere for wanting redemption, but lambast them for having the affair in the first place, which they knew was wrong. If they truly loved each other, they would have kept their distance.   

Debate Question Three: What brought down the Realm of Logres—the affair or the plots of Mordred?  

Proposition: The Affair! 

This side begins by describing the affair between Lancelot and Guinevere, noting that it was a constant, ever-growing stain on the realm that was bound to bring about destruction.

In the second round, this side typically explains the nature of sin itself. They focus on how venial sins, if left unchecked and unforgiven, grow into mortal sins. Further, they argue that sin hurts not only the sinner and its object, but the world more broadly. Such was the case with Lancelot and Guinevere. Their sin of adultery reverberated throughout the entire kingdom.

Finally, while Mordred may have started the battle that ended Logres, it was the affair that gave him the opportunity.  

Opposition: Mordred! 

This side likes to focus on Mordred’s character in its opening. They point out that as the son of Morgana, he was born with a hatred for Arthur and a desire to bring about his downfall. Thus, his goal was precisely that which occurs.

In the second round, they argue that from the time of his emergence in the story, he was lying in wait for his chance. In fact, it was he who exposed the affair and brought it to Arthur’s attention. Other knights knew what was going on, but Mordred was the only one who took action because he was self-interested in its revelation.

In the rebuttal round, they argue that Mordred would have found a way to accomplish his designs even without the affair. He is pure evil. 

Posted on by Stephanie McGann

The Legend of King Arthur #6: Plot Summary

In a literary sense, plot refers to a series of causally-related events that revolve around a central problem, rise to a climax, and ultimately come to a resolution. Roger Lancelyn Green followed this classical plot structure in his version of the legend of King Arthur, while also ensuring that it maintained its traditional connections to the Bible. Each plot element outlined below has a direct and deliberate connection to salvation history.   

Try following allow by filling in this plot diagram. Or use this complete one as a quick reference. I am also sharing my chapter journal questions that deal with specifics of the plot.

Exposition 

Another word for exposition is setting. The setting for King Arthur, then, is Britain sometime after the fall of the Roman Empire but before the full onset of the Middle Ages. Here we see a match-up between actual history and the legend since Britain at that time really was ruled by various barbarian groups, most famously the Saxons, who lacked a codified rule of law. Moreover, as barbarians, they lacked a Christian worldview and the order it imparts.

Arthur becomes king in this context and thus begins unifying the people of Logres into a Realm of Righteousness and turning it into a type of “Garden of Eden.”  

Inciting Incident  

The inciting incident is the problem that sets the plot in motion. Put differently, it is an event of such great proportions that it fundamentally alters the world of the story and must be played out to its fullest extent. The dolorous stroke is the inciting incident of King Arthur. In a literal sense, the dolorous stroke refers to when Sir Balyn struck King Pelles, maiming him and his kingdom beyond the powers of human healing.

Figuratively, it matches up to the fall of Adam and symbolizes the entry of sin. All of Arthur’s efforts will revolve around trying to ward off the ill effects of the dolorous stroke and restore Logres as a Realm of Righteousness.  

Rising Action  

King Arthur sends his knights on quest after quest to right the wrongs in his kingdom. The quests are wrought with great peril, but the Knights of the Round Table continually emerge victorious because of their great skill at arms and virtuous souls. This dramatic climb eventually comes to a head with the onset of the quest for the Holy Grail.

Literally, the Holy Grail is the cup from which Christ drank at the Last Supper. Figuratively, it represents the source of healing for Logres, or the means by which it can once again be a Realm of Righteousness. Try as they might, none of the knights are virtuous enough to achieve the quest.    

Climax  

Enter Sir Galahad, the “holy knight of Logres.” As explained in the character sketches, he is a Messianic figure. Like Christ, he is the only one who can “drink the cup” of the Holy Grail and heal the sinful effects of the dolorous stroke. His life’s purpose is accomplished at the conclusion of the quest, which is the climax, and so he dies and goes to Heaven.

It should be noted that Galahad objectively defeats sin, but he cannot subjectively defeat it for everyone else. Through him, it is possible for Logres to once again be a Realm of Righteousness, but it is up to each individual to make it that way.  

Falling Action  

Sometimes referred to as the “unravelling,” the falling action is typically a quick descent in the drama that seems almost without control. Here, we focus on the affair between Sir Lancelot and Queen Guinevere. The illicit nature of their relationship permeates the story, but only reveals itself in all its ugliness at this point. The couple gets swept up in their romance, leaves caution to wind, and gets discovered.

Urged on by Sir Mordred, though without the approval of Sir Gawain, King Arthur deals swiftly with the treason. Sir Lancelot manages to escape, but as Arthur’s enemy.  

Resolution  

King Arthur learns too late that Sir Mordred was using the affair as a way to break the trust of the Round Table and elevate himself to the throne. Thus ensues a great battle between Arthur and Mordred, the latter of whom succeeds in turning many of the Knights of the Round Tables.

Arthur receives a grievous wound in the battle, which may or may not have killed him—the mystery makes for a great debate! In any event, his wound is largely symbolic as it represents the presence of vice in his life.

At this point, Morgana reemerges to “heal” Arthur in the mysterious Vale of Avalon, a place akin to purgatory. My students always feel a little let down by this resolution, so some prefer to call it an anti–resolution. After all, it seems like Arthur is dead and the Realm of Righteousness is defeated once and for all. 

Yet, a figurative interpretation gives us a different spin. Arthur lives on not only through the endurance of the story, but also through eternal life. He may not have been perfect, but he was able to subjectively win a place in Purgatory, the gateway to Heaven, thanks to Galahad’s objective victory over sin and death.

Finally and perhaps obviously, the last battle is comparable to the apocalypse. It is the end of the “world” of Logres, but also the final entry point into eternity, the true Realm of Righteousness.   

Posted on by Stephanie McGann

The Legend of King Arthur #4: Archetypes

An archetype is a literary term that refers to a “first type” or “fundamental type” of character or other story element. Part of what makes the legend of King Arthur so important is that it created many archetypes that permeate our society today, especially in the superhero genre.   

Knight in Shining Armor 

My students always have a good idea of what a knight in shining armor is well before we begin reading King Arthur. They know it refers to a hero, typically male, who swoops in to save someone in danger, even at great peril to himself.

When we go a little deeper, they quickly recognize the symbolism of his “shining armor.” It is not simply that the knight is supposed to be glamorously good-looking (which doesn’t hurt), but also that he is a model of virtue. His goodness shines forth and shields him from badness.

I love questioning my students, especially the girls, about whether they believe a knight in shining armor really exists. Even at their young age, they mostly say “no” with a sigh. But once they start learning about the actual knights from the legend, wrought with all their imperfections and yet always seeking virtue, they begin to see the archetype as the only ambition for a man!  

Damsel in Distress 

The definition of a damsel in distress is almost too obvious at first. It refers to a person, typically a female, who is utterly incapable of saving herself from disaster and must therefore rely on the chivalrous rescue of a knight in shining armor. Que the romance music, and the two end up happily ever after.

This is one of the more difficult archetypes for our modern sensibilities. At first glimpse, it positions women as being weaker than and therefore dependent on men, which is not a popular idea these days.

However, that is not exactly a correct interpretation of the medieval gender roles the archetype reflects. Women in the Middle Ages were very much likened to the Virgin Mary. Just as all men should revere Mary, so too should they serve a worthy reflection of her on earth. The damsel in distress, then, was placed on a pedestal that made her greater than the man, even if weaker in physical abilities.

In the medieval worldview, men and women were not meant to be equal in their sameness but in their complementarity.  

Hero’s Dilemma 

Much of the dramatic conflict in the legend of King Arthur revolves around the hero’s dilemma, which on a basic level, describes when a knight meets two people in need of rescue but cannot save both. Typically, one person is someone he loves, and the other is a stranger. He must, therefore, choose between serving his own desires or suppressing them.

The hero’s dilemma also repeatedly plays out in a figurative sense through the struggle between virtue (serving God) and vice (serving self).

The most extreme hero’s dilemma revolves around Arthur. When he learns of the love affair between Queen Guinevere and Sir Lancelot, he must choose between sentencing her to death as prescribed by the laws he created and governs, or letting her go free. (Lancelot escapes arrest and so is not sentenced.) In other words, he wrestles with saving his “family” or his “kingdom.” This is an impossible choice because Arthur loves them both!

Dilemmas such as these make for thoroughly enjoyable and insightful classroom debates.